How and why was the idea of the caliphate redefined and politicized from the middle of the 19th until the middle of the 20th century?

Question

How and why was the idea of the caliphate redefined and politicized from the middle of the 19th until the middle of the 20th century? Use the readings below to answer the questions Aydin, Cemil. “Imperial Paradoxes: A Caliphate for Subaltern Muslims.” ReOrient 1, no. 2 (2016): 171–91. Bruinessen, Martin van. “Muslims of the Dutch East Indies and the Caliphate Question.” Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies 2, no. 3 (1995): 115–40. Buheiry, Marwan R. “Colonial Scholarship and Muslim Revivalism in 1900.” Arab Studies Quarterly 4, no. 1-2 (1982): 1–16. Kramer, Martin S. Islam Assembled: The Advent of the Muslim Congresses. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Meleady, Conor. “Negotiating the Caliphate: British Responses to Pan-Islamic Appeals, 1914-1924.” Middle Eastern Studies 52, no. 3 (2016): 182–97. Willis, John. “Debating the Caliphate: Islam and Nation in the Work of Rashid Rida and Abul Kalam Azad.” The International History Review 32, no. 4 (2010): 711–32.

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